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Rocky Mountains

     Rocky Mountains or Rockies, great chain of rugged mountain ranges in western

North America, extending from central New Mexico to northeastern British

Columbia, a distance of about 3220 km (about 2000 mi). The Great Basin and the

Rocky Mountain Trench, a valley running from northwestern Montana to northern

British Columbia, border the Rockies on the east by the Great Plains and on the
west. The Rocky Mountains form part of the Great, or Continental, Divide, which
separates rivers draining into the Atlantic or Arctic oceans from those flowing
toward the Pacific Ocean. The Arkansas, Colorado, Columbia, Missouri, Rio

Grande, Saskatchewan, and Snake rivers rise in the Rockies. The Rockies may be
divided into four principal sections—Southern, Central, Northern, and

Canadian. The Southern Rockies, which include the system's broadest and highest
regions, extend from central New Mexico, through Colorado, to the Great Divide,
or Wyoming, Basin, in southern Wyoming. This section, which encompasses Rocky

Mountain National Park, is composed chiefly of two northern-southern belts of
mountain ranges with several basins, or parks, between the belts. The component
parts include the Sanger de Crisco and Laramie mountains and the Front Range, in
the east, and the San Juan Mountains and the Swatch and Park ranges, in the
west. The Southern Rockies include the chain's loftiest point, Mount Elbert
(4399 m/14,433 ft high), in central Colorado. More than 50 other peaks of the

Rockies rising above 4267 m (14,000 ft) are in Colorado; these include Longs

Peak (4345 m/14,255 ft high) and Pikes Peak (4301 m/14,110 ft high). The Central

Rockies are in northeastern Utah, western Wyoming, eastern Idaho, and southern

Montana. They encompass the Bighorn; Bear tooth, and Unite Mountains and the

Absaroka, Wind River, Salt River, Teton, Snake River, and Wasatch ranges. The

Unite Mountains are the only major portion of the Rockies that extends east west
rather than north south. Among the peaks of the Central Rockies, which include

Grand Eton and Yellowstone national parks, are Gannett Peak (4207 m/13,804 ft
high), Grand Eton (4197 m/13,771 ft high), and Fremont Peak (4185 m/13,730 ft
high). The Northern Rockies are in northern Idaho, western Montana, and
northeastern Washington. They include the Saw tooth, Cabinet, Salmon River, and

Clearwater Mountains and the Bitterroot Range. The loftiest points in the
section, which includes Glacier National Park, are Granite Peak (3901 m/12,799
ft high) and Borax Peak (3859 m/12,662 ft high). The Canadian Rockies, located
in southwestern Alberta and eastern British Columbia, are composed of a
relatively narrow belt of mountain ranges that terminates at the Lizard River
lowland in northeastern British Columbia. The peaks of the section, which takes
in Banff, Jasper, Kootenay, Waterton Lakes, and Yoho National Parks, include

Mount Robson (3954 m/12,972 ft high), Mount Columbia (3747 m/12,294 ft high),
and The Twins (3734 m/12,251 ft high). Slopes generally are very steep, and
there are numerous glaciers. The Rocky Mountains are a geologically complex
system with jagged peaks as well as almost flat-topped elevations. The Rockies
were formed mainly by crustal uplifts in comparatively recent times, during the
late Cretaceous and early Tertiary periods, and later were reshaped by
glaciation during the Pleistocene Epoch. Today the Rockies receive moderate
amounts of precipitation, most of which occurs in the winter. Lower levels are
covered chiefly by grassland, which gives way to extensive forests, principally
of conifers. Above the woodland is a zone of grasses and scattered shrubs. Most
peaks have little vegetation around the summit, and some have a year-round cap
of snow and ice. The Rockies are sparsely populated for the most part and
contain few cities. The principal economic resources of the mountains are
minerals, such as coal, copper, gold, iron ore, lead, molybdenum, petroleum and
natural gas, silver, and zinc. Important mining centers include Leadville and

Climax, Colorado; Atlantic City, Wyoming; Kellogg, Idaho; Butte, Montana; and

Fernie and Kimberley, British Columbia. Major forest products industries,
especially lumbering, are concentrated in the Northern and Canadian Rockies, and
large numbers of sheep and cattle are raised in the Rockies of Colorado,

Wyoming, and Montana. The chain has many centers for outdoor recreation and
tourism. Bighorn Mountains, isolated range of the Rocky Mountains, lying east of
the Bighorn River and extending generally north from central Wyoming into
southern Montana. The range averages more than 2134 m (7000 ft) in elevation;
the highest summit is Cloud Peak (4019 m/13,187 ft) in Wyoming. Along the upper
levels are large coniferous forests, which are part of Bighorn National Forest.

Bitterroot Range, mountain range, northwestern United States, a chain of the

Rocky Mountains, extending about 700 km (about 435 mi) along the Montana-Idaho
border. Rugged and forested, with an average elevation of 2740 m (about 9000

ft), it remains one of the most inaccessible areas in the United States. In 1805
the Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled west through Lolo Pass (1595 m/5233 ft)
in the range. Guadalupe Mountains, mountain range, southwestern United States, a
branch of the Rocky Mountains, extending from southern New Mexico to western

Texas. Guadalupe Peak (2667 m/8749 ft above sea level), the highest in the
chain, is in Texas. Laramie Mountains, range of the Rocky Mountains, western

United States, extending from southeastern Wyoming into northern Colorado. The
highest point, Laramie Peak, is 3131 m (10,272 ft) above sea level. Coal, the
principal mineral, is found in the foothills. San Juan Mountains, mountain
range, southwestern United States, in southwestern Colorado and northwestern New

Mexico. Part of the Rocky Mountains, it is of volcanic origin and is rich in
minerals. The highest peaks are in Colorado and include Uncompahgre Peak (4361
m/14,309 ft), Mount Sneffels (4313 m/14,150 ft), and Wetterhorn Peak (4272
m/14,017 ft). Sangre de Cristo Mountains, mountain range, western United States,
the southernmost range of the Rocky Mountains, in south central Colorado and
north central New Mexico. The very high and narrow range extends southeast and
south for about 354 km (220 mi), from Salida, Colorado, to Santa Fe County, New

Mexico. Blanca Peak (4372 m/14,345 ft), in Colorado, is one of the highest
mountains of the Rockies. Sawatch Range, mountain range, central Colorado, a
branch of the Rocky Mountains. The range extends for about 177 km (about 110 mi)
and reaches a height of 4399 m (14,433 ft) at Mount Elbert, the highest point in
the state. Teton (mountain range), range of the Rocky Mountains, in northwestern

Wyoming, and southwestern Idaho, just south of Yellowstone National Park, west
of Jackson Lake and the Snake River. The highest peak is Grand Teton (4197
m/13,771 ft), located in Grand Teton National Park. Teton Pass (2569 m/8429 ft)
and Phillips Pass (3261 m/10,700 ft) are just south of the park. Uinta

Mountains, mountain range, western United States, mainly in northeastern Utah
and partly in southwestern Wyoming, part of the Rocky Mountains. The peaks of
the Uinta Mountains are mostly flat because of erosion by glaciers and the
waters of the Yampa and Green rivers. The range is about 240 km (about 150 mi)
long and 48 to 64 km (30 to 40 mi) wide. The highest elevation is Kings Peak,
which is 4123 m (13,528 ft) high and is also the highest point in Utah. Wasatch

Range, mountain range, western United States, in the Rocky Mountain system. The
range is about 240 km (about 150 mi) long; part of the Central Rockies, it
begins in southeastern Idaho and runs southward, east of the Great Salt Lake and
through the center of Utah, gradually ending in southwestern Utah. The average
height of the range is about 3050 m (about 10,000 ft), and the highest peak,

Mount Nebo, is 3620 m (11,877 ft) high. Wind River Range, range of the Rocky

Mountains, western Wyoming, forming part of the Continental Divide. The Green

River rises in the southwestern slope of the range, and many tributaries of the

Wind River flow off on the northeastern side. The range contains Fremont Peak
(4185 m/13,730 ft) and Gannett Peak (4207 m/13,804 ft); the latter is the
highest point in Wyoming. Arkansas (river, United States), river, western U.S.,
a major tributary of the Mississippi River, 2350 km (1460 mi) long. Rising in
central Colorado, in the Sawatch Range of the Rocky Mountains, at an altitude of
about 4270 m (about 14,000 ft), the river flows generally east and forms a
turbulent stream passing over rocky beds and through deep canyons such as the

Royal Gorge. As it flows through the plains of Kansas, the river broadens to a
wider, less turgid stream until it enters Oklahoma; at that point it receives
two chief tributaries, the Cimarron and the Canadian rivers. Except for a large
northern bend in Kansas, the Arkansas River follows a southeastern course,
merging with the Mississippi River above Arkansas City, Arkansas. The water
levels of the river are extremely variable, and several dams have been built for
flood control and irrigation and to create hydroelectric power; one of the most
impressive, the John Martin Dam in southeastern Colorado, was built in 1948. The

Arkansas River Navigation System, completed in the early 1970s, made the river
navigable to Tulsa, Oklahoma. Athabasca, river and lake, in western Canada, that
form part of the Mackenzie River system. The Athabasca River, 1231 km (765 mi)
long, begins in Jasper National Park in southwestern Alberta. Its source is the

Columbia Icefield, high in the Rocky Mountains. The river flows northeast across

Alberta and empties through a shallow delta into Lake Athabasca in northeastern

Alberta. The river was once an important route for fur traders. Lake Athabasca,
which straddles the AlbertaSaskatchewan- border, is about 320 km (about 200 mi)
long and covers about 7936 sq km (about 3064 sq mi). Fort Chipewyan, which was
built along the southwestern shore of the lake in 1788, became one of the
region's most important fur-trading posts. Today Lake Athabasca is used for
commercial fishing. It is drained to the north by the Slave River. Large
deposits of petroleum-bearing sand are located along the lower Athabasca River,
near Fort McMurray. Long known but untapped because of high extraction costs,
the deposits are now mined using new technology and efficient methods. In 1994
the output amounted to one-quarter of Canada's crude oil production. Canadian,
also South Canadian, unnavigable river, southwestern United States, 1460 km (906

mi) long. The Canadian River is formed in northeastern New Mexico by the union
of several branches from the southern Rocky Mountains. The river flows south
through New Mexico and then turns east, crossing the Texas Panhandle into

Oklahoma. Following a meandering course, it finally joins the Arkansas River.

The river's only major tributary is the North Canadian River, 1260 km (784 mi)
long, which runs almost parallel to the Canadian River in Oklahoma. The
tributary joins the Canadian River at Eufaula in eastern Oklahoma to form the

Eufaula Reservoir. In northeastern New Mexico, a semiarid region, the Canadian

River provides an important water source at the Conchas Dam, a flood-control and
irrigation project. Colorado (river, North America), river, in southwestern

United States and northwestern Mexico, 2330 km (1450 mi) long, the longest river
west of the Rocky Mountains. The Colorado rises just west of the Continental

Divide, in northern Colorado, and, for the first 1600 km (about 1000 mi) of its
course, passes through a series of deep gorges and canyons that were created by
the eroding force of its current. The river flows in a generally southwestern
direction across Colorado into southeastern Utah, where it joins its chief
tributary, the Green River. After crossing the northern portion of Arizona, the

Colorado flows west for 446 km (277 mi) through the majestic Grand Canyon. It
then flows in a generally southerly direction and forms the boundary between

Arizona and the states of Nevada and California. Near Yuma, Arizona, the river
crosses the international border into Mexico and flows for about 145 km (90 mi)
to its mouth on the Gulf of California, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean. Besides
the Green River, the most important tributaries of the Colorado include the

Dolores and Gunnison rivers, in Colorado; the San Juan River, in Utah; and the

Little Colorado and Gila rivers, in Arizona. With its tributaries, the Colorado
drains portions of seven states, a total area, in Colorado, Wyoming, Nevada,

Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and California, of about 626,800 sq km (about 242,000
sq mi) and 5180 sq km (2000 sq mi) more in Mexico. To control the tremendous
flow of the Colorado, particularly under flood conditions, an extensive series
of dams, many of them constructed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, has been
built along the river and its tributaries. Notable is the Hoover Dam, which
impounds the river at the Black Canyon to form Lake Mead, one of the largest
artificial lakes in the world. The Glen Canyon Dam, in north-central Arizona
just south of the Utah border, is the third highest dam in the U.S. In addition
to regulating the flow of water, dams on the Colorado harness hydroelectric
power and provide storage reservoirs for irrigation projects. As such, they have
been instrumental in reclaiming the semiarid and arid regions through which the
river flows. The Imperial Valley of southern California is an excellent example
of land reclaimed by the waters of the Colorado. A number of reservoirs have
been incorporated into national recreation areas. The Glen Canyon National

Recreation Area in Utah encompasses Lake Powell, formed by the Glen Canyon Dam.

Lakes Mead and Mohave (the latter formed by Davis Dam) are part of Lake Mead

National Recreation Area in Arizona. The Colorado was first explored by the

Spanish navigator Hernando de Alarcón, who ascended the river for more than 160
km (100 mi) in 1540-1541. The Colorado and its chief tributary, the Green, were
thoroughly explored for the first time in 1869 by the American geologist John

Wesley Powell. On this survey Powell and his party made the first recorded
passage of the Grand Canyon. The construction of the Glen Canyon Dam in 1963
dramatically reduced the natural flow of sand and nutrients down the Colorado

River and into the Grand Canyon. In March 1996 the federal government released
more than 380 billion liters (100 billion gallons) of water from Glen Canyon

Dam. This artificial flood added more than three feet to some beaches downstream
and cleared fish spawning grounds of debris and sediment. Further Reading

Columbia (river, North America), Major River of western North America, rising in

Columbia Lake, just west of the main range of the Rocky Mountains, in
southeastern British Columbia. The river was formerly known as the Oregon River.

The Columbia River is about 2000 km (1240 mi) long. It initially flows
northwest, through a long, narrow valley called the Rocky Mountain Trench, and
then turns sharply south, skirting the Selkirk Mountains and passing through

Upper Arrow Lake and Lower Arrow Lake. It next receives the Kootenay (spelled

Kootenai in the United States) and Pend Oreille rivers before entering the state
of Washington, where it first flows south and then traverses a great arc, known
as the Big Bend. After receiving the Snake River, the Columbia turns west and
forms much of the boundary between the states of Washington and Oregon before
emptying into the Pacific Ocean through a broad estuary. The river flows through
several spectacular canyons and deep valleys. About one-third of its course is
in Canada. The Columbia and its tributaries together drain a vast basin of about

673,400 sq km (about 260,000 sq mi). Large oceangoing ships can navigate the
lower Columbia River as far as Vancouver, Washington; and, with the aid of
locks, smaller marine vessels can reach The Dalles, Oregon, about 300 km (about

186 mi) upstream. Barges and other shallow-draft boats can navigate a further

220 km (137 mi). The Columbia River has immense hydroelectric potential, and
since the 1930s several large power projects have been built on it. The largest
of these, the Grand Coulee Dam, in central Washington, is the key unit of the

Columbia Basin Project, a federal undertaking also designed to irrigate up to

485,623 hectares (1.2 million acres) of semiarid land. Other important power
projects on the Columbia include Bonneville, The Dalles, John Day, McNary,

Priest Rapids, Rocky Reach, and Chief Joseph dams, in the United States, and

Mica Dam, in Canada. Most of these dams are also used for flood control and for
irrigation. The American explorer Robert Gray explored the mouth of the Columbia

River in 1792. He named the river for his ship. The Lewis and Clark Expedition
explored the lower Columbia from 1805 to 1806, and David Thompson, a Canadian
surveyor and explorer, followed the river from its source to its mouth in 1811.

The Columbia once had great numbers of salmon and supported a large canning
industry; the fish stock was severely depleted in the 1900s as a result of dam
construction and pollution. In an effort to protect the salmon from extinction,
the Northwest Power Planning Council in 1994 approved a plan to rebuild salmon
stock by increasing the water flow through the dams and by developing habitat
protection standards. Further Reading Continental Divide (also called the Great

Divide), ridge of mountains in North America, separating the streams that flow
west (into the Pacific Ocean) from those that flow east (into the Atlantic Ocean
and its marginal seas). Most of the divide follows the crest of the Rocky

Mountains. It extends from Alaska in the United States into the Yukon Territory
and British Columbia in Canada and forms part of the border between British

Columbia and Alberta, also in Canada. It then passes through Montana, Wyoming,

Colorado, and New Mexico in the United States and continues south into Mexico
and Central America along the crest of the Sierra Madre Occidental. The term
continental divide may be applied to the principal watershed boundary of any
continent. Fraser, river in southern British Columbia, Canada. The Fraser rises
in the Rocky Mountains, in Mount Robson Provincial Park near the Alberta border,
and flows 1370 km (850 mi) before emptying, through a delta, into the Strait of

Georgia, near Vancouver. The Fraser initially flows northwest through a section
of a deep, narrow valley called the Rocky Mountain Trench. It then turns south
near the city of Prince George, where it receives its major western tributary,
the Nechako River. In its central section, the volume of the river increases,
and below Quesnel its banks gradually take on a canyonlike aspect. Important
tributaries in this section include the West Road and Chilcotin rivers, from the
west, and the Thompson River, from the east. From Lytton to Yale the river flows
through a canyon of great scenic beauty. At the canyon's southern end the Fraser
passes between the Cascade Range to the east and the Coast Mountains to the
west. A little below Yale, at Hope, the river turns sharply west, and the
fertile lower Fraser Valley begins. The Fraser empties into the Strait of

Georgia through three main channels. The river is used by commercial vessels for
a short distance upstream. From May to July the Fraser Valley is subject to
flooding; a series of dikes helps protect the delta. The Fraser drains an area
of about 238,000 sq km (about 91,890 sq mi). Much of the river basin is heavily
wooded, and forest-products industries dominate the economy of the settlements
along the river. The lower Fraser Valley, including the delta, has highly
productive farms. Various species of salmon spawn in the Fraser, and salmon
fisheries are located near the river's mouth. The river has great hydroelectric
potential, but it remains undeveloped for fear of detrimental effects on the
migratory habits of the salmon. The Fraser is highly polluted, especially at its
mouth. The first European to visit the river was Sir Alexander Mackenzie in

1793. It is named for the fur trader Simon Fraser, who explored much of it in

1808. In 1858 gold was found in alluvial gravels north of Yale, and a major gold
rush ensued. Louise, Lake, glacial lake in southwestern Alberta, Canada. Lake

Louise is located at an elevation of 1731 m (5680 ft) in Banff National Park,
near the town of Lake Louise. The lake is about 2.4 km (about 1.5 mi) long and

1.2 km (0.75 mi) wide. Sheltered by the Rocky Mountains, Lake Louise is known
for the tranquil beauty of its turquoise-blue surface, which mirrors nearby
scenic forests and snowcapped peaks. The lake is fed from the north by the
spectacular Victoria Glacier and is drained by the Bow River in the southeast.

Lake Louise was named in 1884 for the Canadian governor-general's wife, who was
also the fourth daughter of Queen Victoria. Missouri (river) (Illinois

Emissourita,"dwellers of the big muddy"), river in central United

States. The Missouri is formed by the confluence of the Jefferson, Gallatin, and

Madison rivers at Three Forks in southwestern Montana. The longest river in the

United States, the Missouri is one of the primary tributaries of the Mississippi

River. It flows 3726 km (2315 mi) and drains an area of about 1,370,000 sq km
(about 529,000 sq mi). The Missouri initially flows north, skirting the main
range of the Rocky Mountains. Then it passes through a 366-m (1200-ft) gorge
called the Gates of the Mountains, turns northeast and reaches Fort Benton,

Montana, the head of navigation. From Fort Benton the river flows east and is
joined by the Milk River at Frazer, Montana, and by the Yellowstone River at

Buford, North Dakota. From this point the Missouri flows generally southeast
through North Dakota and South Dakota to Sioux City, Iowa, where it turns south
and becomes the boundary between Nebraska and Kansas on the west and Iowa and

Missouri on the east. The Platte River is received near Omaha, Nebraska, and the

Kansas River at Kansas City, Missouri. On receiving the Kansas, the Missouri
turns east and flows across the state of Missouri. About 27 km (about 17 mi)
north of St. Louis, the muddy Missouri enters the channel of the Mississippi.

Other important cities on the river are Bismarck, North Dakota; Council Bluffs,

Iowa; Saint Joseph, Missouri; and Atchison, Leavenworth, and Kansas City,

Kansas. The upper Missouri traverses mountainous terrain covered with dense
coniferous forests. These forests support large animals, including bears, elk,
and moose. Fish found in the cold upper river include the Montana grayling and
the rainbow trout. The middle and lower river valleys are lined with grasslands
and forests of poplar, hickory, and other trees, providing a habitat for
rabbits, foxes, beavers, and other animals. Fish in the warmer lower river
include bass, several species of catfish, and carp. Historically, a number of

Native American peoples lived in the valley along the Missouri, including the

Hidatsa, Crow, Iowa, Arikara, Blackfoot, and Sioux. The region was popular for
buffalo hunting and agriculture, and the tribes used the river for commerce. In

1673 French-Canadian explorer Louis Jolliet and French missionary and explorer

Jacques Marquette became the first Europeans to discover the Missouri when they
came across the lower river during a journey down the Mississippi. The lower
river became an important route for fur traders, who began to venture farther up
the river. During the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804 to 1806, American
explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark became the first whites to explore
the river basin from its mouth to its headwaters. Steamboat traffic on the

Missouri began in 1819 with the voyage of the Independence, and soon steamboats
were taking settlers west, as well as hauling freight such as grain, fur,
lumber, and coal. Steamboat activity peaked in 1858, but then the construction
of railroads lessened traffic on the river. The lower portion of the river now
supports commercial barge lines, which carry agricultural products, steel, and
oil. In order to enhance navigability and provide flood control, hydroelectric
power, and irrigation, the Missouri River Basin Program was created in 1944.

Under this program and the subsequent Missouri Basin Program, a series of dams,
reservoirs, and locks were built on the river. However, in 1993 heavy rains
caused record-breaking flooding along the Missouri and other branches of the

Mississippi River. Further Reading Saskatchewan (river, Canada), river in
central Canada, 550 km (340 mi) long. It is formed in central Saskatchewan by
the confluence of the North Saskatchewan and South Saskatchewan rivers and flows
east into Manitoba, where it passes through Cedar Lake before emptying into Lake

Winnipeg. The North Saskatchewan River (1200 km/760 mi long) rises in the Rocky

Mountains of southwestern Alberta and flows east past Edmonton, Alberta, and

Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. The South Saskatchewan River (1390 km/865 mi long),
formed by the juncture of the Bow and Oldman rivers in southern Alberta, flows
northeast past Medicine Hat, Alberta, and Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. The

Saskatchewan River system stretches 2600 km (1600 mi) and drains most of the
western prairie. It was an important route in the fur trade of the 18th century
but has no navigational value today. The river system is widely used for
irrigation, however, and it has several hydroelectric facilities, notably

Gardiner Dam on the South Saskatchewan River, near Saskatoon, and Grand Rapids

Dam, at the mouth of the Saskatchewan River. Arapahoe Peak, mountain, northern

Colorado, in the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains, near Boulder; 4117 m
(13,506 ft) high. On the face of the peak is an ice field known as Arapahoe

Glacier. Blanca Peak, mountain, south central Colorado, in the Sangre de Cristo

Range of the Rocky Mountains, near Great Sand Dunes National Monument. It is

4372 m (14,345 ft) high and is one of the highest mountains in the state. Pikes

Peak, one of the most famous peaks in the Rocky Mountains, located in the Front

Range, central Colorado, near Colorado Springs. Although the elevation (4301
m/14,110 ft) of the peak is not the highest in the state, Pikes Peak is noted
for a commanding view. Tourists can ascend the mountain by three different
means: by horseback, by a cog railway approximately 14 km (9 mi) long, or by
automobile over a well-constructed road. Two springs, Manitou and Colorado, are
located near the foot of the mountain. On the summit of Pikes Peak is a
meteorological station. The peak was discovered in 1806 by the American explorer
and army officer Zebulon Montgomery Pike. It was first climbed in 1820.

Bufflehead, common name for a small north American diving duck. Its name is
derived from "buffalo-head," an allusion to the large size of its
short-billed head, especially in males, created by especially puffy feathers.

The body plumage of males is black and white above and white below, the head
glossy black with a large white patch from the eye to the back edge. Females are
dark brown, with a smaller white patch on the side of the head. Adults are about

38 cm (about 15 in) long. Buffleheads nest in wooded areas of Canada and the

Rocky Mountains, and winter on bays, lakes, rivers, and harbors. Scientific
classification: The bufflehead belongs to the tribe Mergini in the family

Anatidae. It is classified as Bucephala albeola. Grosbeak, common name for
several species of large-billed seed-eating birds of the fringillid, or finch,
family and of the emberizid family. Of the fringillid grosbeaks, only two are
found in North America: the relatively small billed pine grosbeak, of northern
coniferous forests around the world, and the very large billed evening grosbeak.

The latter species breeds in coniferous forests in Canada and the northernmost

United States, extending in the Rocky Mountains south to Mexico. It winters
irregularly in the United States, in some years invading in great numbers,
occasionally south to northern Florida. Until the 1950s it bred only as Far East
as Michigan and Ontario, but it then began expanding its range to New York, New

England, and the Maritime Provinces. Some attribute this expansion to better
winter survival, as many people put out sunflower seeds and other food for these
birds. Some cardinaline grosbeaks are entirely tropical. In North America the
best-known species are the rose-breasted grosbeak, of the east, and its western
counterpart, the black-headed grosbeak. In both the male is strikingly colored:
black and white with a bright-pink breast spot in the former, and black and
orange-brown in the latter. The females look like giant sparrows. The blue
grosbeak is found in the southern United States and Mexico. Males are rich blue
with brown wing bars, and females are dark brown. Scientific classification:

Grosbeaks belong to the families Fringillidae and Emberizidae, of the order

Passeriformes. They are sometimes all placed in either one of those families.

The pine grosbeak is classified as Pinicola enucleator, the evening grosbeak as

Coccothraustes vespertina (sometimes Hesperiphona vespertina), the rose-breasted
grosbeak as Pheucticus ludovicianus, the black-headed grosbeak as Pheucticus
melanocephalus, and the blue grosbeak as Guiraca caerulea. Grouse, common name
for 17 species of birds of the pheasant family, found around the world in the
northern hemisphere; two of the three species of ptarmigan inhabit both the

Americas and Eurasia. Grouse vary in size from males of the capercaillie, 86 cm
(34 in) long, of European coniferous forests, to the 32 cm (12.5 in)
white-tailed ptarmigan, of western North American Mountains. In most species the
sexes differ in color, but none have truly bright plumage. Bright colors are
limited to red or yellow comblike structures over the eyes, expanded during the
breeding season, or sacs of naked skin that inflate like balloons during
courtship displays. Mating systems are elaborate in most grouse, and in many the
males are polygamous, meeting in the spring at certain arenas where they compete
for mates. As highly popular game birds, grouse have been intensively studied.

Best known and most widely distributed of the American species is the ruffed
grouse, which occurs in woodlands from Alaska to Newfoundland, south to the
northern Rocky Mountains and the Appalachians. The name comes from a ruff of
black (rarely, coppery) feathers at the sides of the neck. These feathers are
larger in males than in females, and are spread widely during courtship
displays, when the male struts on a moss-covered log. This species is famous for
the springtime "drumming" of the males, a sound produced by the
beating of the wings against the air, as the male stands erect. The sound
carries a great distance, and resembles a noisy gasoline engine starting up. Two
other North American grouse, the blue grouse of western mountains and the more
widely distributed spruce grouse are confined to coniferous forests. The male
blue grouse has inflatable neck sacs, varying geographically in color from
yellow to reddish purple; the spruce grouse lacks such sacs. These two species
have been called "fool hens" because of their apparent fearlessness,
making them easy to hunt. Two species of prairie chicken, the closely related
sharp-tailed grouse, and the sage grouse, dwell in open country. The latter, an
inhabitant of sagebrush areas, especially in the Great Basin, is the largest

American grouse. Males reach 75 cm (30 in) in length; females are smaller (58
cm/23 in). During the communal courtship displays, males strut about with their
spiky tail feathers fanned out, and a pair of yellow sacs on their chests
inflated. Scientific classification: Grouse belong to the family Phasianidae of
the order Galliformes. The capercaillie is classified as Tetrao urogallus, the
white-tailed ptarmigan as Lagopus leucurus, and the ruffed grouse as Bonasa
umbellus. The blue grouse is classified as Dendragapus obscurus and the spruce
grouse as Dendragapus canadensis. Prairie chickens are classified in the genus

Tympanuchus. The sharp-tailed grouse is classified as Tympanuchus phasianellus
and the sage grouse as Centrocercus urophasianus. Further Reading Solitaire
(bird), common name applied to various species of American thrush. In the United

States, one species, Townsend's solitaire, is found chiefly in the Rocky

Mountains. The bird is largely brownish gray in color, with a white-eye ring and
a buff wing patch. All solitaires are superb singers. Solitaire was also the
name of an extinct, flightless bird resembling the dodo. It inhabited Rodrigues,
an island in the Indian Ocean, until the last half of the 18th century.

Scientific classification: Solitaires belong to the family Turdidae of the order

Passeriformes. Townsend's solitaire is classified as Myadestes townsendi. The
solitaire that is now extinct belongs to the family Raphidae, order

Columbiformes, and is classified as Pezophaps solitaria. Columbine (flower),
common name for certain perennial herbs with lacy, lobed leaves and delicate
flowers. Remarkably, both sepals and petals are colored, and the petals extend
to form a spur. The 40 known species are widely distributed in the North

Temperate Zone and show a prismatic range of color. North American and Eurasian
species, as well as a number of hybrids, are grown in gardens. Among the common
species are the wild columbine, with scarlet to pink flowers, native from Nova

Scotia to Texas, and the Colorado, or Rocky Mountain, columbine, with blue
flowers. Scientific classification: Columbines belong to the family

Ranunculaceae. Wild columbine is classified as Aquilegia canadensis. Colorado,
or Rocky Mountain, columbine is classified as Aquilegia caerulea. Indian

Paintbrush, common name for any of a genus of annual, biennial, and perennial
herbs (see Figwort). The genus, which contains about 200 species, is native to
the cooler portions of North and Central America and Asia, and to the Andes.

Because Indian paintbrushes, also called painted cups, are parasitic on the
roots of other plants, they have not been naturalized and have rarely been
cultivated away from their native habitat. The plants have long, hairy,
unbranched stems with alternate leaves. The uppermost leaves, or bracts, are
brilliantly colored and much showier than the inconspicuous interspersed
flowers. The flowers, which are borne in spikes, have a two-lobed calyx, a
two-lobed corolla, four stamens, and a solitary pistil. The corolla, which is
usually yellow, is encased within the calyx, and is usually indiscernible. The
fruit is a two-celled capsule. The common painted cup is the state flower of

Wyoming. The calyx of this plant is greenish white, but the bracts are intense
vermilion. The scarlet paintbrush is a common wild plant of the eastern United

States. The common Indian paintbrush is a hardy herb found in Canada and in the
mountainous regions of the northern United States from New England to the Rocky

Mountains. Its calyx is greenish white tinted with purplish red. Scientific
classification: Indian paintbrushes make up the genus Castilleja, of the family

Scrophulariaceae. The common painted cup is classified as Castilleja
linariaefolia, the scarlet paintbrush as Castilleja coccinea, and the common

Indian paintbrush as Castilleja septentrionalis. Sagebrush, common name applied
to any of several related aromatic, bitter shrubs, native to the plains and
mountains of western North America, but especially to the Great Basin, the
extensive desert region west of the Rocky Mountains in the United States.

Sagebrush is some of the few woody members of their family (see Composite

Flowers). The most common species in the United States is the common sagebrush,
a many-branched plant that grows from 0.3 to 6 m (1 to 20 ft) in height. It has
silvery, toothed leaves and terminal clusters of small, yellow flowers. A
similar species, the low sagebrush, attains a maximum height of 30 cm (1 ft) and
is abundant in the plains of Colorado and Wyoming. Because sagebrush often grows
in regions where there are few other woody plants, it is sometimes used for
fuel. In some areas the foliage is used as winter forage. Overgrazing of native
grasses has caused a proportionate increase in sagebrush. Scientific
classification: Sagebrush is classified in the genus Artemisia of the family

Compositae. The common sagebrush is classified as Artemisia tridentata. The low
sagebrush is classified as Artemisia arbuscula. Bighorn Sheep, largest and
best-known wild sheep of the North American continent, also called Rocky

Mountain sheep. They are found from southern British Columbia to northwestern

Mexico. A full-grown bighorn may average 101 cm (40 in) at the shoulder and
range in weight from 79 to 158 kg (175 to 350 lb). The great curved horns, which
may take more than one turn, attain a length of up to 127 cm (up to 50 in). The
ewes have smaller horns, seldom exceeding 38 cm (15 in). The coat is not woolly
but long, full, and coarse, like that of a goat. The animals have a short mating
season, during which the rams clash head-on in a battle for the ewes; for the
rest of the year the sheep usually divide into separate male and female herds.

The bighorns leap from ledge to ledge at great speed and grip slippery surfaces
with the shock-absorbing elastic pads of the feet. The animals have
exceptionally acute senses of sight, smell, and hearing. Two other varieties
found in northwest North America are the white sheep, or Dall sheep, and the
deep gray or grayish-brown Stone's sheep. The bighorn is related to the Asian
argali, the mouflon, and the domestic sheep. Scientific classification: The
bighorn sheep belongs to the family Bovidae, in the order Artiodactyla. It is
classified as Ovis canadensis. Ground Squirrel, common name for certain
burrowing, terrestrial, western American rodents characterized by large cheek
pouches opening inside their mouths. Ground squirrels are often erroneously
called gophers. Like the true gophers, they are agricultural menaces, destroying
grass and grain. Their alternate name, spermophile (Greek for "seed
lover"), is derived from their usual diet. The ground squirrel resembles
both the prairie dog and the chipmunk. Most ground squirrels are brownish or
yellowish-gray, with light spots on the upper parts. Some species have
longitudinal stripes along their backs. In the northern part of their range they
hibernate during the winter; the duration of hibernation varies with the
environment, and in some species hibernation may extend from September to May.

Ground squirrels are found in open country, often in arid regions. The Great

Plains ground squirrel, found west of the Rocky Mountains, is typical of most of
the spermophiles. The rough-haired ground squirrel is 28 cm (11 in) long and has
an 8-cm (3-in) bushy tail. Its back is brown and its lower parts yellowish-gray;
it has a white chin and a white ring around each eye. The head is stubby, with
round, wide ears. The legs are short. These animals seek their food close to
their burrows. They mate after they emerge from hibernation in the spring; the
female bears 5 to 13 offspring at a time. The 13-striped spermophile, found near
the Mississippi River, has 7 grayish-yellow stripes running down its back,
interspersed with 6 stripes composed of spots. Its lower parts are fawn colored.

This animal subsists on mice, insects, and grain. Scientific classification:

Ground squirrels belong to the family Sciuridae. The Great Plains ground
squirrel is classified as Spermophilus elegans, the 13-striped ground squirrel
as Spermophilus tridecemlineatus. Further Reading Mule Deer, common name for a
large deer of the western and central United States, so called because of its
extremely large ears, which measure almost 25 cm (almost 10 in) in length. This
animal attains a height of 107 cm (42 in) at the shoulder. The name black-tailed
deer is sometimes applied to a subspecies of the mule deer inhabiting the Rocky

Mountains. The tail of this deer along the basal two-thirds is white above and
dark below; the terminal third is black. Scientific classification: The mule
deer belongs to the family Cervidae. It is classified as Odocoileus hemionus.

Rocky Mountain Goat, also mountain goat, common name of a species of antelope
that inhabits the high mountains from the northwestern United States to Alaska.

Mountain goats live in regions of heavy snowfall and tend to inhabit localities
with many crags and cliffs. They are excellent climbers, and their hooves, which
have soft pads rimmed with sharp edges, enable them to climb and run on snow,
ice, or bare rock. The Rocky Mountain goat is 90 to 120 cm (36 to 47 in) tall at
the shoulders. The body is sturdy and the legs are short and stout. Both sexes
have black horns, which contrast with the yellowish-white, shaggy hair covering
the entire body, and a beardlike tuft of hair underneath the chin. Rocky

Mountain goats are herbivorous ruminants, feeding on any exposed vegetation they
find. They are not gregarious, except during the mating season between November
and early January. The young are born generally between May and June. Scientific
classification: The Rocky Mountain goat belongs to the family Bovidae. It is
classified as Oreamnos americanus. Wolf, carnivore related to the jackal and
domestic dog. Powerful teeth, bushy tails, and round pupils characterize all
wolves. Certain characteristics of the skull distinguish them from domestic
dogs, some breeds of which they otherwise resemble. There are two species of
wolves: the gray, or timber, wolf, once widely distributed but now found only in

Canada, Alaska, and northern Europe and Russia, except for a few isolated packs
in other regions; and the red wolf, found only in Texas and the southeastern

United States. An adult gray wolf measures up to 2 m (6.5 ft) in length,
including the tail (less than half the body length), and weighs up to 80 kg (175

lb). The fur of the gray wolf is red-yellow or yellow-gray with black patches on
its back and sides, and white on its chest and abdomen. There are also black or
brown gray wolves, and those in the far north may be pure white. The red wolf is
smaller in size and usually darker in color. Wolves are equally at home on
prairies, in forest lands, and on all but the highest mountains. In the winter
they travel in packs searching for food. Small animals and birds are the common
prey of wolves, but a pack sometimes attacks reindeer, caribou, sheep, and other
large mammals, usually selecting weak, old, or very young animals for easier
capture. When no live prey can be found, wolves feed on carrion (decaying flesh
of dead animals). They also eat berries. The den, or lair, of a wolf may be a
cave, a hollow tree trunk, a thicket, or a hole in the ground dug by the wolf.

In the spring, females have litters of one to eleven pups. Adult wolves
sometimes feed young pups by regurgitating partly digested food for them. The
pups normally stay with the parents until the following winter but may remain
much longer. Parents and young constitute a basic pack, which establishes and
defends a territory marked by urine and feces. Larger packs may also assemble,
particularly in the winter. The pack leader is called the alpha male and his
mate is the alpha female. As social animals, wolves exhibit behavioral patterns
that clearly communicate dominance over or submission to one another. The
communal howling of a pack may serve to assemble its members, communicate with
other packs, advertise its territorial claims, or it may be simply a way of
expressing pleasure. Visual and scent signals are also important in
communication. Although gray wolves are still abundant across northern Europe
and Asia, only remnant populations exist elsewhere in Europe. Their numbers in

North America also have been greatly diminished. They are fairly abundant only
in Alaska and Canada; smaller numbers exist in the Pacific Northwest and upper

Midwest, primarily in Minnesota. Under the Endangered Species Act, the United

States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) as threatened in Minnesota and as an
endangered species elsewhere in the United States except Alaska list the gray
wolf. The red wolf, also listed as endangered species, was the first species for
which the USFWS developed a recovery plan. The decreasing numbers of wolves are
the result of encroachments on their territory by humans, who have long regarded
wolves as competitors for prey and as dangerous to livestock, pets, and people.

However, few if any healthy wolves have attacked humans, whom they instead try
to avoid. Wolves are valuable predators in the food web, and their decimation
has led to the overpopulation of certain other animal species in various areas.

Active efforts to reintroduce wolves to national parks in the United States are
now underway, although such efforts are controversial. Because coyotes have
hybridized with some red wolves, an attempt to reintroduce red wolves to parts
of North Carolina has involved identifying red wolves that are not part coyote.

The success of this project is not yet clear. In 1995 and 1996 the USFWS
reintroduced Canadian gray wolves into Yellowstone National Park and the

Sawtooth Mountain region in central Idaho, despite protests from nearby ranchers
and some biologists. The reintroduced wolves are producing more offspring than
expected. When ten breeding pairs reside in these regions for three years, the
gray wolf will be taken off the list of endangered species in the northern Rocky

Mountains. Wolf biologists estimate that this goal may be met by the year 2002
without transplanting additional wolves from Canada. By 1997 these
reintroduction efforts were succeeding beyond expectations of wolf biologists.

Scientific classification: The wolf belongs to the family Canidae. The gray, or
timber, wolf is classified as Canis lupus. The red wolf is classified as Canis
rufus.